SONDERDRUCK Pierre Tulowitzki, Nina Bremm, Chris Brown & Georg Krammer Using Insights from Video Games to Support Formal Education – A Conceptual Exploration Aus: Die Deutsche Schule 111. Jahrgang, Heft 4/2019 ISSN 0012-0731 UNSERE BUCHEMPFEHLUNG 111. Jahrgang, Heft 4, 2019 Die Zeitschrift für Birgit Eickelmann, Deutsche Erziehungswissenschaft Wilfried Bos, Julia Gerick, Frank Goldhammer, Schule Bildungspolitik und pädagogische Praxis Heike Schaumburg, Knut Schwippert, Martin Senkbeil, Herausgegeben von der Gewerkschaft Erziehung und Wissenschaft Jan Vahrenhold (Hrsg.) ICILS 2018 #Deutschland 4 4 Digitalisierung und BildungsgerechtigkeitComputer- und informations- bezogene Kompetenzen von Nadia Kutscher Schülerinnen und Schülern im zweiten internationalen Vergleich 2 0 1 9 Digitale Ungleichheit als Herausforderung und Kompetenzen im Bereich Kerstin Drossel, Birgit Eickelmann & Mario Vennemann Computational Thinking Digitalisierung und Bildungsgerechtigkeit in der Schule 2019, 408 Seiten, br., 39,90 €, ISBN 978-3-8309-4000-5 Pierre Tulowitzki, Nina Bremm, Chris Brown & Georg Krammer E-Book: Open Access Die Nutzung von Erkenntnissen aus Videospielen für den formalen Unterricht – eine konzeptionelle Annäherung Die Studie ICILS 2018 liefert ein aktuelles Bild über den Stand der digitalen Bildung in Deutschland. In diesem Band werden erst- Diskussion und Bericht zum Schwerpunktthema mals empirisch basiert Aussagen zu Entwicklungen über einen mehr- Rudolf Kammerl jährigen Zeitraum präsentiert. Erstmalig werden zudem Befunde zum Bildung im digitalen Wandel Kompetenzbereich ‚Computational Thinking‘ vorgelegt, der das Lösen von Problemen und den kompetenten Umgang mit algorithmischen Florian Schacht et al. Strukturen anspricht. Das fachliche Lernen stärken – Erklärvideos nutzen Über die detaillierte Erfassung der Rahmenbedingungen ergibt sich ein Steinfurter Straße 555 Gesamtbild der technologischen und pädagogischen Entwicklungen Diskussionsbeiträge zum Thema in Deutschland im internationalen Vergleich. Ergebnisse zu zentralen „Multiparadigmatische Lehrerbildung“ Hintergrundmerkmalen der SchülerInnen sowie zu Schulformunter- Jörg Schlömerkemper, Nils Berkemeyer, Colin Cramer 48159 Münster schieden ergänzen die Befunde. Der Band liefert so Informationen zur (Weiter-)Entwicklung von Schule und Unterricht sowie zur Lehrer- Weiterer Bericht professionalisierung im Kontext digitaler Transformationsprozesse. 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Th is framework uses video game achievements – virtual trophies received for completing tasks or mastering challenges – as a proxy indicator for the development of competencies relevant to formal education. We suggest that this knowledge can be harnessed to improve teaching and learning, in particular teacher perceptions, teaching skills, and, ultimately, measurable changes in students’ learning. Showing teachers what students can actually do and are already do- ing (in video games) could help them better understand areas of strength and interest of their students. Keywords: video games, video game achievements, asset-based orientation, schools in challenging circumstances, professional development Die Nutzung von Erkenntnissen aus Videospielen für den formalen Unterricht – eine konzeptionelle Annäherung Zusammenfassung Der Beitrag führt Erkenntnisse aus der Erforschung der Wirkung von Computerspielen, der Psychologie sowie der Schulentwicklungsforschung zusammen, um Ansätze eines Konzepts zur Nutzung von Daten aus Videospielen zur Unterstützung von formalen Lehr-Lernsettings zu präsentieren. In diesem Ansatz werden Daten basierend auf so- genannten „Achievements“ – virtuellen Auszeichnungen oder Trophäen in Videospielen – als Behelfsindikatoren für die Entwicklung von für die formale Bildung relevan- ten Kompetenzen genutzt. Derartiges Wissen könnte u. a. dazu genutzt werden, Lehr- Lernsettings zu unterstützen, z. B. durch veränderte Perspektiven der Lehrkräft e auf die Fähigkeiten von Schüler*innen. Wissen um Kompetenzen von Kindern und Jugendlichen (aus Videospielen) könnte Lehrkräft e dabei unterstützen, eine kompetenzorientierte Perspektive auf Schüler*innen zu entwickeln, welche sich letztendlich messbar auf den Lernerfolg in formalen Lehr-Lernsettings niederschlagen könnte. Digitalisierung und Bildungsgerechtigkeit DDS, 111. Jg., 4(2019) 405 © Waxmann Verlag GmbH | persönlicher Sonderdruck für Pierre Tulowitzki, Nina Bremm, Chris Brown & Georg Krammer Pierre Tulowitzki, Nina Bremm, Chris Brown & Georg Krammer Schlüsselwörter: Videospiele, Achievements, Schulen in herausfordernder Lage, Unter- richt, Weiterbildung 1. Introduction Video games are a ubiquitous feature in the lives of today’s children and teenagers (Ofcom, 2017; Waller, Willemse, Genner, Suter & Süss, 2016). Yet, research on the ef- fects of playing video games is still a relatively young fi eld and one which, to date, has predominantly been focused on potential risks (Ferguson, 2015). More recently, how- ever, understanding the benefi ts of video games has emerged as a fi eld of research in its own right (Granic, Lobel & Engels, 2014), with indications of video games being potent tools for learning and for training certain cognitive and social abilities (for in- stance, self-regulation, spatial thinking, visual processing and cognitive control; see for example Barr, 2017; Gabbiadini & Greitemeyer, 2017; Granic et al., 2014; Oei & Patterson, 2014). Th is article draws upon fi ndings from the eff ects of gaming, educational psycholo- gy, teacher professionalism as well as school improvement research to develop a pro- posal for linking activities associated with video games to formal education. Th e core idea is that teachers could be made aware of the competencies students train in video games that are also relevant for formal education. Th e goal behind the proposed model is to make data from video game activities us- able for supporting formal education practice, without impeding on the priva- cy or sovereignty of adolescents. We argue that students’ video game activities can be linked to predominant models of cognitive abilities (Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory of cognitive abilities; cf. McGrew, 2009), with these abilities in turn being relevant for academic achievement (Deary, Strand, Smith & Fernandes, 2007). We then sug- gest developing tools that support teachers in understanding the competences their students have trained through video games, which are relevant for formal learning. While greater knowledge about competencies used and developed by children play- ing video games could support all children’s learning, it could be especially benefi - cial for children from schools in areas with low socioeconomic status (SES), where: 1) a strong lifeworld orientation and positive beliefs towards students’ cognitive and academic abilities seem to be critical for educational success (Bremm, 2019); and 2) crucially, children spend more time playing video games (Carson, Spence, Cutumisu & Cargill, 2010). Following such an approach raises ethical questions about the extent to which the activities that children and teenagers carry out in their spare time should be ‘used’ for formal education purposes. Oriented on the discourse on informal and non-for- 406 DDS, 111. Jg., 4(2019) Digitalisierung und Bildungsgerechtigkeit © Waxmann Verlag GmbH | persönlicher Sonderdruck für Pierre Tulowitzki, Nina Bremm, Chris Brown & Georg Krammer Using Insights from Video Games to Support Formal Education mal learning settings and their potential for formal educational processes – especially for disadvantaged children – our aim is to explore the possibilities that leisure gam- ing can off er for school education. It is important to note that this approach does not provide teachers with direct information about the actual gaming behavior of their students. Rather, our aim is to establish a framework that allows teachers to gain insights into the competencies that students develop and train while playing vid- eo games in their leisure time. Th is could help to challenge common stereotypes and defi cit perspectives around gaming and around a lack of competencies and skills from students from disadvantaged communities. 2. Eff ects of playing video games on children – a brief overview Studying the eff ects of playing video games has long been a contested area of research. Findings from several early meta-analyses suggest that playing video games can in- crease aggressive behavior in children and young adults (Anderson & Bushman, 2001; Anderson et al., 2010). More recent meta-analyses (Ferguson, 2015) and studies with randomized experimental conditions (Valadez & Ferguson, 2012), however, paint a diff erent picture, concluding that there are either no such harming eff ects, or that any eff ect sizes found are virtually insignifi cant. By contrast, research into potential benefi ts of gaming suggests that playing, for ex- ample, pro-social video games increases pro-social behavior (Greitemeyer & Mügge, 2014). Similarly, so called active video games (video games which involve physical ac- tivity) increase players’ fi tness (Peng, Lin & Crouse, 2011; Primack et al., 2012). From a pedagogical point of view, one conclusion to draw from these observed benefi ts is that children playing video games learn and train various skills, with the exact na- ture of what is learned depending on the game type. Th is view is supported by a size- able body of research. For example, in their review of research, Granic et al. (2014) conclude that video games hold tremendous potential for learning. Th is conclusion is further supported by fi ndings from a number of studies (for instance Baniqued et al., 2013; Barr, 2017; Moisala et al., 2017). Several scholars have called for video games to be recognized (and used) as learning tools (Gee, 2005; Shaff er, Squire, Halverson & Gee, 2005). It is also noted that studies such as Green’s and Bavelier’s (2012) on cognitive de- velopment in video gamers, or Kühn’s, Gleich’s, Lorenz’, Lindenberger’s and Gallinat’s (2014) on the development of cerebral structural plasticity (as indicators for cognitive development) indicate that the use of video games produces change even at the struc- tural level of the brain: Digitalisierung und Bildungsgerechtigkeit DDS, 111. Jg., 4(2019) 407 © Waxmann Verlag GmbH | persönlicher Sonderdruck für Pierre Tulowitzki, Nina Bremm, Chris Brown & Georg Krammer Pierre Tulowitzki, Nina Bremm, Chris Brown & Georg Krammer “Video game training augments GM [gray matter] in brain areas crucial for spatial navigation, strategic planning, working memory and motor performance going along with evidence for behavioral changes of navigation strategy” (Kühn et al., 2014, p. 1). Th ese fi ndings are more contested, however, with some (meta-)reviews fi nding a clear, signifi cant connection (Bediou, Adams, Mayer, Tipton, Green & Bavelier, 2018; Pallavicini, Ferrari & Mantovani, 2018) and others concluding that cognitive abili- ty and video game skill are only weakly related (Roque & Boot, 2018; Sala, Tatlidil & Gobet, 2018). In addition, video games appear to be not only a potential tool for learning, but also for assessment. For instance, recent research (Boot, 2015; Landers, 2014) sug- gests that testing with video games is more motivating than more traditional meth- ods (Quiroga, Román, De La Fuente, Privado & Colom, 2016). Th is is because video games oft en include an engaging narrative and consider new challenges or elements as players complete levels in the game. Attempts to utilize games for educational purposes has led to a large body of research on so-called “serious games”. Serious games walk the line between fostering learn- ing – to be “serious” – and retaining their engaging and entertaining value – to be “games” (Arnab et al., 2015, p. 2). While the eff ectiveness of serious games has yet to be shown consistently (Giessen, 2015; Girard, Ecalle & Magnan, 2012), recent sys- tematic reviews found it useful to contrast serious games to entertainment games and point to a variety of learning outcomes for serious games (Boyle et al., 2016). Th e va- riety of learning outcomes has been classifi ed into knowledge acquisition, skill acqui- sition, perceptual and cognitive, physiological, aff ective, behavior change, and social and soft skills. Synthesizing this large body of evidence on serious games may be done by mapping learning mechanics to game mechanics to address the underlying mechanics of learn- ing (Arnab et al., 2015). On the one hand, this mapping off ers a useful framework for classifying games and their integrated learning mechanics. On the other hand, the theoretical rationale only tentatively taps into these fundamental individual diff erenc- es among students, which are strongly related to academic achievement. Th erefore, an avenue worth exploring may be to relate (serious) games to individual diff erences students train in video games that are also relevant for formal education, and there- by ultimately for academic achievement. For example, scholars have found that games associated with working memory and reasoning are related to facets of general men- tal ability (Baniqued et al., 2013). General mental ability in turn has been postulated as an antecedents for academic achievement (Deary et al., 2007). 408 DDS, 111. Jg., 4(2019) Digitalisierung und Bildungsgerechtigkeit © Waxmann Verlag GmbH | persönlicher Sonderdruck für Pierre Tulowitzki, Nina Bremm, Chris Brown & Georg Krammer Using Insights from Video Games to Support Formal Education Th e concept of using mechanics from games as motivational tools has also found its way into education under the term “gamifi cation” (Dicheva, Dichev, Agre & Angelova, 2015). Fueled by the possibilities of digitization, it has been advocated to incorporate elements of gaming known to aff ect motivation into educational systems (for a critical review, see Buck, 2017). From a critical point of view, such “gamifi ca- tion” has only limited evidence of success (Dicheva et al., 2015), with some schol- ars criticizing the forced nature of this type of approach (Bogost, 2014; Devers & Gurung, 2015). Serious games and gamifi cation form a large body of literature on what we know to- day on how to use games to foster learning. Th eir shared basis is that common prac- tices of learning are either augmented or enhanced by the possibilities of digitization. In essence, these approaches off er possibilities to rethink how formal learning is im- plemented. In doing so, however, students’ existing use of games in their every-day life is left untouched. A more promising avenue – we argue – is to understand how children playing video games of their own volition can be useful for formal educa- tion. Key to this, we believe, is understanding the nature of video game achievements. 3. Video game achievements As noted by Lewis, de Salas & Wells (2013), video games can generally be considered as representing a series of ongoing challenges to be faced by a player (or players). In addition to the intrinsic reward players experience from mastering these challenges, many games provide additional rewards in relation to the completion of specifi c tasks, or in terms of a particular style of gameplay (ibid.). Th is additional reward is typically an extrinsic reward, referred to as ‘achievement’; with other names for such rewards including ‘badges’, ’reward’, ‘accomplishments’ and ‘trophies’ (Castillo, Escribano & Muntada, 2017; Ifenthaler, Bellin-Mularski & Mah, 2016; Lewis et al., 2013). We pro- pose that such achievements may be used for pedagogical purposes. Researchers in the area of gaming are increasingly interested in examining the re- lationship between video games and the development of transferable skills (Castillo et al., 2017). Since achievements represent the demonstration of certain competen- cies that are required to unlock the reward in question (Ifenthaler et al., 2016), some suggest these achievements can represent recognition of more objective skill develop- ment (Castillo et al., 2017; Ifenthaler et al., 2016). In other words, they are indicative of skills that could potentially be transferred from the gaming environment to other aspects of life, i. e. formal education. In Germany (as well as many other Western countries), expectations of children in terms of education are mostly set through competence-oriented standards. In other words, there is a notion of what children should be able to know and to do at a cer- Digitalisierung und Bildungsgerechtigkeit DDS, 111. Jg., 4(2019) 409 © Waxmann Verlag GmbH | persönlicher Sonderdruck für Pierre Tulowitzki, Nina Bremm, Chris Brown & Georg Krammer Pierre Tulowitzki, Nina Bremm, Chris Brown & Georg Krammer tain age. In video games, this defi nition of what is necessary to be performed in cer- tain situations already exists in the form of achievements. In many cases, the achieve- ments are presented to the player as a list of objectives (see Fig. 1). Fig. 1: Examples of achievements in a video game Example: Starcraft II Starcraft II (Blizzard, 2010) is well defi ned in Avontuur and Spronck (2013) as “a real-time strategy game where the players’ goal is to destroy their enemy’s base by developing their own base and an army. Players can choose from three diff erent races to play, each of which has its own features and requires a diff erent way of being played for maximal impact. To construct buildings and produce army units, a player needs to secure minerals, gas and time. During the game, players unlock new options by constructing particular buildings” (p. 3). As time passes in the game, the resources that the player uses to manufacture units or buildings, are consumed, forcing the player to look for other resources on the map or to attempt to overwhelm the opponents before the resources run out. Exemplary achievements within the game: “Speed Too!”, “Zerg Rush” & “Hostbusters” Defi nition: Complete the fi nal mission of each story campaign on hard diffi culty in less than 25 minutes each. To get these achievements, a player has to win a game with all three diff erent races under a strict time-limit. As each race has its own particularities (e.g. diff erent units, costs, tactical strengths and weaknesses, diff erent modes of resource exploitation), players have to understand these particulari- ties suffi ciently well to win. Th is implies that they need to make use of the following competencies: – Fluid Reasoning: the ability to combine pieces of information to form general rules or conclu- sions and/or to apply general rules to specifi c problems to produce answers that make sense. – Reaction and Decision Speed: the ability to make decision at and respond to the onset of simple stimuli. – General (Domain Specifi c) Knowledge: knowledge of the three races, their similarities and their diff erences. – Short Term Memory: the ability to generate, store, retrieve, and transform visual images and sensations. – Auditory Processing: perception of auditory information and the ability to distinguish between competing auditory information, as well as analyze and comprehend sound patterns. – Processing Speed: the ability to perform elementary cognitive tasks with high mental effi ciency (cf. attention). – Management of Material Resources: obtaining and seeing to the appropriate use of equipment, facilities and materials needed to do certain work. – Problem Sensitivity: accuracy in making decisions about which buildings and troops players should invest their resources in. – Time Management: the constant, eff ective managing of time and actions in order to defeat one’s opponent. – Monitoring Self & Others: the ability to monitor one’s self and being able to recognize what is wrong with a strategy and how it can be improved. – Organizational Skills: the ability to use one’s time, energy, resources, etc., in an eff ective way so achieving what is required. – Creativity: the ability to come up with unusual or clever ideas about a given topic or situation, or to develop creative ways to solve a problem. 410 DDS, 111. Jg., 4(2019) Digitalisierung und Bildungsgerechtigkeit © Waxmann Verlag GmbH | persönlicher Sonderdruck für Pierre Tulowitzki, Nina Bremm, Chris Brown & Georg Krammer Using Insights from Video Games to Support Formal Education 4. How can video game achievements be related to academic achievement? On the psychological level, it can be concluded that any action demands or requires a series of cognitive processes. Some actions, such as cycling or driving, can stimu- late simpler or even procedural cognitive processes. But other actions, such as man- aging an entire process of producing a product with a team of people behind it, may require great mental eff ort and skills. In today’s work context as well as civil life, there is a virtually infi nite number of actions that fall between the minimum and the max- imum range of mental stimulation. Video games can mirror this, albeit with a much lower level of complexity. General mental ability has been shown to be the best predictor of academic achieve- ment. For example, Deary et al. (2007) found a latent correlation of .81 for gener- al mental ability and academic achievement in secondary education. Other scholars (McGrew, 2009) have suggested that the eff ect of general mental ability on academ- ic achievement may be understood as a mediating eff ect of broad (e. g. processing speed) and narrow (e. g. reading speed) cognitive abilities. For studying cognitive abilities, the Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory of cognitive abilities (CHC theory) has been proposed as a common theoretical framework (for an over- view, see McGrew, 2009). Th e CHC theory proposes one overall factor for cognitive abilities – general mental ability – and typically recognizes up to nine broad abili- ties, which in turn can be diff erentiated into narrow cognitive abilities. While there is still an ongoing discussion on the nature of cognitive abilities, the CHC theory: 1) provides a framework that combines some of the most prominent theories of cogni- tive abilities, 2) can serve as a bridge for the theory-to-practice-gap in intelligence re- search, and 3) has been shown to be useful in applied fi elds such as school psychol- ogy. We suggest that attaining certain video game achievements may be related to aca- demic achievement: 1) by being a useful proxy indicator for selected cognitive abili- ties, and 2) by training selected cognitive abilities. Th e example described above (see Fig. 1 on the previous page) illustrates that a wide range of broad and narrow cog- nitive abilities are needed to attain certain video game achievements. For example, reasoning skills are absolutely necessary. Reasoning skills, in turn, are conceptualized as fl uid reasoning in the CHC theory, which has oft en been reported as the broad- est cognitive ability most saturated by general mental ability (e. g. Bickley, Keith & Wolfl e, 1995). Studies on alternative modes of testing the broad cognitive ability pro- cessing speed off er further indications that there is a link between video game achieve- ments and cognitive abilities. For example, Mcpherson and Burns (2005) demonstrat- ed that a computer-based mouse response (CBMR) test could be used to measure processing speed the same as traditional paper-and-pencil (PP) tests. Digitalisierung und Bildungsgerechtigkeit DDS, 111. Jg., 4(2019) 411 © Waxmann Verlag GmbH | persönlicher Sonderdruck für Pierre Tulowitzki, Nina Bremm, Chris Brown & Georg Krammer Pierre Tulowitzki, Nina Bremm, Chris Brown & Georg Krammer Finally, we suggest that there may be a link between video game achievements and academic achievement above and beyond cognitive abilities. A myriad of non-cogni- tive abilities have been linked to academic achievement. For example, the personality trait conscientiousness has been shown to be the best predictor of academic achieve- ment above and beyond general mental ability (Poropat, 2009). Other non-cognitive traits have been linked to academic achievement as well, such as the following: moti- vation factors (e. g. performance goal orientation), self-regulatory learning strategies (e. g. eff ort regulation), and psychosocial contextual infl uences like goal commitment (for an overview, see Richardson, Abraham & Bond, 2012). Building upon these non- cognitive abilities, we suggest that to attain certain video game achievements, selected non-cognitive abilities are also essential as players need to systematically coordinate their eff ort over a long period of time to achieve their goal. 5. Expectations and assessment of learner achievement While acknowledging the critique of a risk of school “annexing” the leisure time of children (Fölling-Albers, 2000) for formal education purposes, we nonetheless pos- it that being able to connect experiences and competencies from the life-world of children to the context of formal education off ers signifi cant potential in terms of motivation and ultimately student performance. It also off ers a chance at a fairer as- sessment of student mental abilities and ultimately at reducing tertiary origin and discrimination eff ects (Esser & Hoenig, 2018; Helbig & Morar, 2018). Research into teachers’ judgements indicates that their assessments of students’ abilities can be in- fl uenced by demographic and socially constructed categories such as gender, ethnic background and even a child’s fi rst name (cf. Bonefeld & Dickhäuser, 2018; Kaiser, Möller, Helm & Kunter, 2015). Studies also show that factors such as motivation, re- silience and learner persistence vary between students from diff erent social back- grounds (cf. summary Ditton, 2016). It is precisely these latter factors that can infl u- ence teachers’ assessments of student performance (Lorenz, Gentrup, Kristen, Stanat & Kogan, 2016). Th e so-called “cooling out processes” (Goff man, 1961) that describe declining educational aspiration, motivation, persistence and a disruption to the for- mation of a positive academic self-concept, can reinforce inequality eff ects for stu- dents who have experienced repeated failures throughout their schooling. Studies re- port strong correlations between building positive relationships and high expectations towards students’ abilities (positive student orientation) and successful learning in disadvantaged schools (e. g. Racherbäumer, 2017). Th ere are strong indications that such high expectations and positive student orientation are lacking in disadvantaged schools due, for example, to teachers having a defi cit-orientation towards students’ abilities (Bremm, 2019). Similarly, Sorhagen (2013) highlights interactions between misperceptions of children’s abilities in third grade and their measured attainment by the age of 15. When the ability of early-years students was underestimated in com- 412 DDS, 111. Jg., 4(2019) Digitalisierung und Bildungsgerechtigkeit © Waxmann Verlag GmbH | persönlicher Sonderdruck für Pierre Tulowitzki, Nina Bremm, Chris Brown & Georg Krammer Using Insights from Video Games to Support Formal Education parison with measured performance, students had lower attainment in mathematics, reading, vocabulary and verbal reasoning by the ninth grade. Furthermore, inaccurate assessment by teachers at the third-grade level had a strong infl uence on the educa- tional development of students from socially disadvantaged backgrounds (Sorhagen, 2013). Against this background, teachers’ better understanding of students’ abilities seems crucial for reducing the production and reproduction of social inequalities in educational institutions. To this end, it may prove useful to highlight to teachers that their students’ leisure activities, such as gaming, can be related to antecedents of aca- demic achievement. Th is may be even more the case when this relation is embedded in an evidence-based framework for cognitive development such as the CHC theo- ry. We suggest that video game achievements hold great potential in this context and that knowledge derived from achievements could be made available for teachers with- out any extra eff ort of data collection on their part. 6. Making achievements useful for teaching and learning Following the premises, that 1) video games can lead to learning; and that 2) parts of what abilities are demonstrated in video games (e. g. facets of general mental abil- ity) might also be relevant to formal education, we argue that what has been learned in video games needs to be made visible to teachers in ways that have practical appli- cation and relevance. Such an approach would make it easier for teachers to see stu- dents’ competencies and potential that might not be visible otherwise. Findings from a school improvement project that supported 40 schools in disadvantaged areas in Germany by using data on school quality measures and students’ characteristics show that in many schools, it seemed crucial to challenge common stereotypes and defi - cit orientations amongst teachers towards their students. Th is then facilitated a situa- tion where change within the schools was possible (Drucks, Bremm, van Ackeren & Klein, 2019). Specifi cally, data on students’ abilities and competencies helped teach- ers to question and refl ect on their perceived – oft en underestimated – impact on stu- dents’ learning due to students’ social disadvantage (Valencia, 1997). With regards to education, however, the challenge is to be able to understand how achievements and the competencies required to unlock these can be recognized and used by teachers in order to enhance teaching and learning. In other words, if achievements can be thought of as indicative of an acquisition (e. g. of a skill or form of cogitative development or social/interpersonal knowhow); if the actions neces- sary for obtaining them are clear and transparent; and if the competencies associat- ed with the achievement can be inferred and translated in a way that teachers under- stand, then teachers can be presented with insights into previously unseen aspects of their students’ abilities. As a result, teachers can be supported to use this wider un- derstanding in order to enhance teaching and learning. Th is may be particularly im- Digitalisierung und Bildungsgerechtigkeit DDS, 111. Jg., 4(2019) 413 © Waxmann Verlag GmbH | persönlicher Sonderdruck für Pierre Tulowitzki, Nina Bremm, Chris Brown & Georg Krammer Pierre Tulowitzki, Nina Bremm, Chris Brown & Georg Krammer portant in relation to children from disadvantaged areas. As such, better understand- ing of achievements that, in turn, can facilitate better relationships and raise teacher expectations regarding these students’ abilities is likely to have a positive impact on some of the factors related to successful learning in disadvantaged schools. For many games and platforms, information about achievements can be exported and analyzed through so-called standardized application program interfaces (APIs). Th erefore, a new kind of soft ware tool could be developed that could access and an- alyze the achievement data and “translate” it into information relevant for teachers. Th us, teachers would not have direct access to the achievement data, but merely to a “cognitive skill translation”. Th is would not only protect the privacy of children, but also save the teachers from having to learn a video game context. Th e use of the c ognitive skill translation tool would be accompanied by training, so that teachers would know about the uses and limits of such a tool (see Fig. 2). Fig. 2: Model for using video game achievements for formal education An example of how this could look like would be as follows: Tim is 13 years old and a slightly below-average student. His main teacher, Ms. Marvel, has yet to identify any major strengths or areas of interest of Tim. As Tim and Tim’s parents gave permis- sion at the beginning of the school year for Ms. Marvel to use the “G@mes Insight for Education” (GIfE) tool, Ms. Marvel loads up the tool from her computer at work, possibly integrated through a plugin in her Moodle-like learning management sys- tem. GIfE shows Ms. Marvel an analysis of Tim’s achievements (not the achievements themselves), highlighting that there seem to be accomplishments related to creativi- ty, fl uid reasoning and organizational skills. Th is suggests that Tim likely invested sig- nifi cant time into playing games that drew upon these skills and that these skills are particularly well-trained in Tim. GIfE would highlight to Ms. Marvel how these skills are related to cognitive and non-cognitive abilities relevant for academic achievement. Furthermore, GIfE would also indicate to Ms. Marvel the kinds of tasks in various school subjects that could draw upon these skills. Ms. Marvel now has a better idea of how to off er a teaching environment to Tim that is tailored to his strengths and inter- 414 DDS, 111. Jg., 4(2019) Digitalisierung und Bildungsgerechtigkeit © Waxmann Verlag GmbH | persönlicher Sonderdruck für Pierre Tulowitzki, Nina Bremm, Chris Brown & Georg Krammer Using Insights from Video Games to Support Formal Education ests, and where Tim has unused potential. At no point would Ms. Marvel ever be able to see what games exactly Tim plays nor exactly what achievements he has earned in the video games – Ms. Marvel only has access to aggregated information based on an analysis of Tim’s achievements. Tim’s leisure time remains therefore protected and is not shared with Ms. Marvel. For teachers who might be interested to learn more about the games their students play in their leisure time, an option could be made available to reveal more details (e. g. the types of games played or even the names of the achievements), but strictly based on prior consent by the student in question. In order to help Ms. Marvel understand the GIfE-tool, the ideas behind the tool and the data she is provided with, it would be crucial to off er a special training to teachers who are willing to work with such information. We think that such a training should focus on providing information on the process of translating video game achieve- ments to skills so that teachers are able to follow the conceptual framework that lies behind this approach in more depth. Additionally, teachers could be provided with general information on competencies that are relevant for student learning and how to strengthen such skills as well as examples and materials that might help them re- fl ect on stereotypes and defi cit orientations. Additionally, the usability of the GIfE tool itself would be vital (e. g. colored bar charts for diff erent competencies; empirical averages for every competency in the specifi c age group in order to be able to com- pare values). In principle, such a system could make use of achievements from video games of all genres. Th ere are myriads of ways to classify types of video games, for example in terms of represented content and game mechanics (Herz, 1997), orientation towards problem-solving or world-building (Gee, 2006) or according to the level of complex- ity and the extent of social interaction required (Granic et al., 2014, p. 70). So far, no classifi cation has emerged that has been met with an overarching consensus. Likewise, no widely accepted classifi cation of the “educational value” or even learning potential of diff erent types of video games has emerged (Rebetez & Betrancourt, 2007). For ex- ample, so-called fi rst person shooter games have in the past been deemed dangerous for children and worthless with regard to their learning potential (cf. Kühl, 2016), yet there is empirical evidence suggesting that playing such games can actually enhance the ability to learn new tasks (Green & Bavelier, 2012). One limiting factor might be that not everyone plays video games or that diff erent groups exhibit diff erent playing habits. For example, there is the aforementioned evi- dence suggesting that children in low-SES households spend more time playing vid- eo games than in more privileged households (Carson et al., 2010). Another distinc- tion that is frequently put forth, is that of gender. However, while there is evidence that girls tend to be interested in diff erent types of games than boys, there is ample evidence that points to them playing about as much as boys overall (at least accord- ing to data from the producers of video games when factoring in so-called “casual” Digitalisierung und Bildungsgerechtigkeit DDS, 111. Jg., 4(2019) 415 © Waxmann Verlag GmbH | persönlicher Sonderdruck für Pierre Tulowitzki, Nina Bremm, Chris Brown & Georg Krammer Pierre Tulowitzki, Nina Bremm, Chris Brown & Georg Krammer games such as games played on cellphones: BIU e. V. & GfK, 2011; game – Verband der deutschen Games-Branche, 2019). In addition, one reason that girls tend to play diff erent types of games might be because of a lack of appropriate female represen- tation in such types (Greenberg, Sherry, Lachlan, Lucas & Holmstrom, 2010; Lynch, Tompkins, van Driel & Fritz, 2016). In any case, diff erent playing habits should not aff ect the possibility to link achievements from video games to the possession of com- petencies relevant for formal education. Achievements are a common feature in video games across genres and platforms nowadays and most video game systems and plat- forms feature some kind of interface that allows one to share one’s own achievements with others. In other words: Video game achievements could be used, regardless of (possibly) diff erent playing habits and/or gender of the young adults playing. 7. Conclusion Before a tool like the currently fi ctitious GIfE can become a reality, several steps are necessary. First, the necessary piece of soft ware as well as accompanying train- ing needs to be developed for teachers. As soft ware that tries to translate data from selected video game achievements into information about soft skills already ex- ists (Escribano, 2017), such an endeavour can be considered feasible from a tech- nical standpoint. Furthermore, additional research into the correlations between certain video game activities, video game achievements and cognitive abilities is nec- essary, ideally using experimental settings and randomized control group designs. Additionally, studies that map achievements from popular video games to compe- tencies that are relevant for formal education are required in order to enable data from as many games as possible to be used. Furthermore, feedback from a soft ware tool like GIfE needs to be tailored to the teachers’ needs: fi rstly, by showing the evi- dence-based link between the gaming achievements and academic achievements em- bedded into models of cognitive abilities (cf. CHC theory); secondly, by showing how various school subjects could draw upon these abilities. Findings from a project that worked with 40 schools in disadvantaged areas in Germany suggest that data on stu- dents’ skills that challenge defi cit orientations in teachers and provided schools with knowledge on students’ skills and abilities was perceived as very helpful by principals and steering groups in order to create a climate for change (Drucks et al., 2019). Such feedback should be guided by experts that illustrate to teachers the potential, as well as the limits, of this data. In any case, giving teachers tools to understand how gam- ing achievements translate to abilities that are relevant for formal education could enable them to better connect to these students and support them on their learning journey. Furthermore, it must be ensured students’ leisure gaming time is not over- instrumentalized for educational purposes. Th erefore, it will be crucial that teachers don’t receive any information on the games themselves, but, rather, are provided with ‘translated information’ on students’ abilities. Some teachers have a hard time devel- 416 DDS, 111. Jg., 4(2019) Digitalisierung und Bildungsgerechtigkeit © Waxmann Verlag GmbH | persönlicher Sonderdruck für Pierre Tulowitzki, Nina Bremm, Chris Brown & Georg Krammer Using Insights from Video Games to Support Formal Education oping positive student orientations towards low SES students (Bremm, 2019), some- thing that could be mitigated by using data from gaming to show (the potential for) learning. 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