Biomimetic 3D-printed gyroid scaffolds with versatile bioactive coatings for complex craniomaxillofacial bone regeneration

Abstract

Three-dimensional (3D) printing enables the fabrication of biomimetic scaffolds for craniomaxillofacial (CMF) bone regeneration, offering patient-specific solutions with tailored mechanical and biological properties. This study presents a 3D-printed gyroid scaffold composed of poly(L-lactide-co-D,L-lactide) (PLDLLA) and β -tricalcium phosphate ( β -TCP), designed to enhance structural integrity and bioactivity. Using computer-aided design (CAD) and a dual-material additive manufacturing approach incorporating a water-soluble support material, scaffolds with controlled porosity and tunable mechanical properties are fabricated to match trabecular mandibular bone characteristics. Mechanical testing demonstrates that modulating wall thickness and porosity optimizes compressive strength and elastic modulus, ensuring stability under physiological loads. Chemical and cytotoxicity analyses confirm biocompatibility across manufacturing, post-processing, and sterilization. Biofunctionalization with polydopamine (PDA) and nano-hydroxyapatite (nHAP) enables selective cellular responses. PDA suppresses cell mineralization markers in osteosarcoma cells, while PDA-nHAP enhances osteogenic differentiation and fibroblast adhesion, supporting regenerative applications. High fidelity to CAD models and suitability for point-of-care fabrication underscore its clinical potential for CMF defect repair. By integrating tunable mechanics and targeted bioactivity, the developed scaffold offers a versatile platform for CMF reconstruction, addressing critical challenges in bone tissue engineering.