Antimony mobility in soils: current understanding and future research directions

Abstract

Antimony (Sb) has gained increased attention over the past few decades due to its possible detrimental effects on biota and its potential to leach and disperse from contaminated soils. The fate of Sb in the environment is largely controlled by its chemical speciation, as well as the speciation of solid phases (e.g. Mn/Fe-oxyhydroxides) that interact with Sb in soils. Microbes have the capacity to facilitate a multitude of oxidation and reduction reactions in soils. Therefore, they exert control over the reactivity of Sb in the environment, either directly and/or indirectly, by changing Sb speciation and/or affecting the redox state of soil solid phases. Here, we outline processes that determine the behaviour of Sb in soils. We conclude that based on laboratory studies there is a good theoretical understanding of pure soil components interacting with Sb species. However, comparatively little is known concerning the contribution of these interactions in complex natural systems that are dynamic in terms of biogeochemical conditions and that can hardly be simulated using laboratory incubations. We note that important biochemical foundations of microbially driven Sb conversions (i.e. molecular constraints on organisms, genes and enzymes involved) have emerged recently. Again, these are based on laboratory incubations and investigations in environments high in Sb. In this regard, an important remaining question is which microorganisms actively impact Sb speciation under real-world conditions, in particular where Sb concentrations are low. Multiple dissolved Sb species have been described in the literature. We note that more analytical development is needed to identify and quantify possible key Sb species in natural systems, as well as anthropogenically impacted environments with only moderate Sb concentrations. With these research needs addressed, we believe that the Sb fate in the environment can be more accurately assessed, and remediation options can be developed. © 2025 The Royal Society of Chemistry.