Hochschule für Technik und Umwelt FHNW
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Publikation Experimental investigations of size effects in thin copper foils(Springer Dordrecht, 2004) Simons, Gerd; Dual, Jürg; Weippert, Christina; Villain, Jürgen; Ahzi, S.; Cherkaoui, M.; Khaleel, M. A.; Zbib, H. M.; Zikry, M. A.; Lamatina, B.This work deals with the characterization of the deformation behavior of thin copper foils with the goal of investigating size effects. Tensile tests are performed with specimens, which possess a comparable microstructure, a constant thickness/width and width/length ratio whereas the thickness varies from 10 to 250 m. Results show a transition from ductile to a macroscopically “brittle” behavior in the range of about 20 m.04B - Beitrag KonferenzschriftPublikation Size effects in tensile testing of thin cold rolled and annealed Cu foils(Elsevier, 01/2006) Simons, Gerd; Weippert, Ch.; Dual, Jürg; Villain, Jürgen01A - Beitrag in wissenschaftlicher ZeitschriftPublikation Three-dimensional microstructure of thin copper foils revealed by ion beam cutting and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD)(Trans Tech Publications, Ltd., 07/2005) Simons, Gerd; Kunze, Karsten; Hauffe, W.; Dual, Jürg; Esling, C.; Humbert, M.; Schwarzer, R.A.; Wagner, F.Tensile testing of thin rolled copper foils with thickness ranging from 10 to 250 µm shows a dependence of the fracture strain with respect to the thickness of the foils [G. Simons et al., in Solid Mechanics and its Applications, Vol. 114 (2004), pp. 89-96]. To understand the influence of the microstructure in the foils on this phenomenon the microtexture is investigated by orientation mapping through electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). As the samples are rather small standard preparation techniques do not apply. Two methods are described which allow the investigation of different section cuts of the samples: Cross sections of the samples were produced by ion beam cutting with a wide beam of 7 keV Kr ions. Internal planes parallel to the specimen surface were made accessible by wet etching. The as-received material possesses a very strong texture consisting mostly of the cube component and some remnants of a previous rolling texture. Specimens tested in a tensile test do not show major microstructural changes compared to virgin samples. After a heat treatment at 300°C the cube texture has significantly weakened in favour of revived rolling components, and the fracture strain increased about ten times relative to the as-is material.04B - Beitrag KonferenzschriftPublikation Technology in motion(UKIP Media & Events Ltd., 2018) Simons, Gerd; Pospisek, Tomas01B - Beitrag in Magazin oder ZeitungPublikation Mechanical properties of MEMS structures(2005) Dual, Jürg; Simons, Gerd; Villain, Jürgen; Weippert, Chr.Mechanical characterization of MEMS (micro electromechanical systems) materials is increasingly important in view of improving reliability and assessing the life time of new miniaturized devices. In this paper first a number of testing methods are described. These methods include tensile, torsion and fatigue testing of specially designed microstructures. Difficulties arise from manufacturing and handling of small structures and the determination of its geometrical dimensions which directly affect the accuracy of material parameters extracted from the experiments. In addition, the measurement of mechanical parameters like small forces and torques or strains poses a challenge. This paper focuses on size effects in rolled copper foils of thickness between 10 and 250 microns as determined from tensile testing. Tensile testing was chosen as a testing method in order to minimize strain gradients. Depending on the size the copper foils are tested in a classical setup or in a special tensile apparatus which is adapted to the small size of the specimens. The special setup consists of a balance to measure the applied force. The specimens are strained with a lead screw driven translation stage. In order to take care of slip and elasticity in the fixations the strain is measured optically directly on the sample using a least square template matching algorithm. It was found that depending on the thickness of the foils the average fracture strain decreases from about 15% down to .5 % for the 250 and 10 micron specimens, respectively. In order to find a reason for this dramatic change many efforts have been undertaken in order to characterize the specimens more precisely. The microstructure of the samples was determined using various methods including conventional micrographs, hardness measurements and X-ray diffraction.04B - Beitrag KonferenzschriftPublikation Mechanical size effects in thin copper foils. An experimental study(ETH Zürich, 2004) Simons, Gerd; Dual, Jürg; Villain, JürgenThe goal of this work is the investigation of the effect of several size parameters on the mechanical behavior of thin copper foils in tensile testing, in particular the question is whether a smaller sample has a different mechanical behavior than a larger one. Attention is paid to the most relevant size parameter, the thickness, and the influence of the microstructure of the foils, a factor which has not been accounted for systematically in literature up to now. Copper foils with 10, 20 and 34 μm thickness are tensile tested in-house, thicker foils (50, 100 and 250 μm) by a project partner (Laboratory of Materials for Mecha- tronics and Electrical Engineering, University of Applied Sciences Augsburg, Prof. Villain). For the tensile tests, a new setup was built which extends a previous setup developed by [Mazza, 1997] and allows for an automatic testing of the samples at a controlled strain rate. The standard strain rate applied is ˙≤ = 10−4 1/s. Samples with a dogbone shape are tested, their geometry is scaled according to the thick- ness. The samples are produced by wet etching of rolled and electrodeposited copper foils (standard sample type, “as-received samples”). Some of the samples are heat treated after etching (“heat treated samples”). As the microstructure of a crystalline solid has a significant influence on its mechanical behavior it is characterized in detail. Different techniques such as met- allography, X-ray diffraction and electron backscatter diffraction are applied for this task. The rolled samples (10 and 20 μm thick) have a strong cube texture with elongated grains with an oblate cross-section (typical length 100 μm, small diameter 5 μm, long diameter 30 μm). The electrodeposited samples have a columnar grain structure with a weak fibre texture. Heat treatment changes the microstructure of the rolled foils considerably. The grains are equi-axed with an average diameter of 15 μm. Thus, the 10 and 20 μm heat treated foils have only 1-2 grains per thick- ness. Rolling texture components with 〈111〉 parallel to the rolling direction form the preferred orientations, some grains are still in cube orientation. The most important result of the tensile tests is that the thickness of the foils has an influence on the mechanical behavior in the size regime studied. When the thickness is reduced from 250 to 10 μm the fracture strain decreases for the as-received foils from approximately 20% to 0.2% and for the samples with heat treatment from 35% to 15%. The tensile strength increases with smaller thickness for the as-received samples if the surface roughness is taken into account for the stress calculations (the surface roughness of the thinner foils is a considerable fraction of the total thickness). The 10 μm as-received foils have the highest tensile strength which is 400 MPa. The heat treated samples do not show a pronounced size dependence of the tensile strength. xi To explain the effects observed, in particular the size dependence of the fracture strain and the tensile strength as well as the low fracture strain of the 10 and 20 μm as-received foils (in the order of 0.2%), the surfaces of the fractured samples and the microstructure of the samples are analyzed in detail. The analysis of the fracture surfaces shows for all samples a failure by necking in thickness direction. Meaning that samples which show macroscopically a low fracture strain, i.e. a behavior which is typical for brittle materials, display micro- scopically large plastic deformations, i.e. a ductile behavior. This discrepancy can be explained by a strongly localized deformation: a sample fails as soon as the stresses in a cross-section reach a critical value; there is hardly any redistribution of strain, which is typical for ductile material behavior. This is also reflected by an analysis of the microstructure after the tensile test. The as-received samples do not show large microstructural changes with respect to the unloaded state except at the location of breakage. In comparison to that, the heat treated foils show a moderate elongation of the grains and a strong increase in surface roughness after tensile testing. This increase can be explained by the formation of slip bands at the surface and by the rotation of grains out of their original plane. The rotation of grains is facilitated by the low number of grains per thickness in the heat treated samples, as grains, which are in contact with the surface, can deform more easily. The general trend that thinner samples have a smaller fracture strain is believed to be caused by a combination of various mechanisms. Firstly, local reductions in cross-section by an imperfect sample geometry and by statistically random, plastic deformations are more critical for thinner samples. Secondly, surface grains can deform more easily and hence the number of grains per thickness has an impact on the mechanical behavior. Thirdly, in thinner samples there are less grains which could result in a smaller number of activated gliding systems. Fourthly, dislocations cannot build up large plastic deformations in small grains. The influence of other parameters such as width and length of a sample, strain rate and orientation with respect to the rolling direction were studied as well. In comparison with the thickness, they only have a small influence on the mechanical behavior of the foils tested. It has to be stressed that the size dependence found in this work was measured in a tensile test, i.e. a test where no considerable strain gradients occur. Experi- mental verification of size effects in loading situations, where no strain gradients are present, is scarce (e.g. [Weiss et al., 2002] and [Espinosa et al., 2004]). This work also shows that, for the explanation of the effects observed, a thorough examination of the microstructure of the samples tested is mandatory. As the influence of many parameters has to be taken into account in detail, the experimental study of size effects turns out to be a complicated topic. Besides the experimental details, this work shows the characterization results for the microstructure of the copper foils before and after tensile testing as well as the tensile test results for various parameters. The influence of many factors on the mechanical behavior of thin foils is discussed thoroughly and the tensile test behavior is explained by means of a simple geometrical model.11 - Studentische ArbeitPublikation Method of mounting a weigh-in-motion sensor in a roadway(Kistler Holding AG, 01.03.2019) Simons, Gerd; Pfluger, Kim12 - PatentPublikation Windsichter mit Zyklon(Hochschule für Technik FHNW, 27.03.2016) Cvetkovic, Darko; Vogel, FrédéricAusgangslage: Die Themen dieser Bachelor Thesis sind Windsichter und Zyklone. Die Arbeit ist eine Fortsetzung des Projekts P5 „Auslegung eines Zyklons zur Auftrennung von Holzstaub“. Der Auftraggeber dieser Projektarbeit ist Prof. Dr. Frédéric Vogel vom Institut für Biomasse und Ressourceneffizienz der Fachhochschule Nordwestschweiz. Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, eine Anlage bestehend aus einem Windsichter und einem Zyklon als Vorzeigeobjekt für den Unterricht zu bauen. Die Anlage soll als Vorzeigeobjekt im Modul Verfahrenstechnik dienen, welches von Prof. Dr. Frédéric Vogel im Bachelor-Studiengang Energie- und Umwelttechnik unterrichtet wird. Vorgehen: Zu Beginn der Arbeit wurde die Auftragsklärung durchgeführt. Es galt herauszufinden wie eine Klassierung von mehreren hundert Kilogramm Holzstaub in wenigen Stunden zu bewerkstelligen und ob dies im Rahmen der Projektarbeit realisierbar ist. Dies wurde aufgrund der resultierenden Anlagegrösse und möglicher Kosten verworfen und der Fokus wurde auf eine Anlage gelegt, welche als Vorzeigeobjekt im Unterricht genutzt werden kann. Nach der Auftragsklärung wurde das Basic Engineering gestartet. Für die Anlage wurde nach passenden Komponenten gesucht. Diese wurden in die Auslegungsberechnungen eingesetzt und mit Hilfe eines 3D-CAD Models wurde die Anlage entwickelt. Daraufhin wurden Offerten eingeholt und eine Budgetabschätzung erstellt, um die Finanzierung des Projektes zu klären. Im Detail Engineering wurde das Model optimiert, Fertigungszeichnungen erstellt und Komponenten bestellt. Nach dieser Phase folgten die Montage, Inbetriebnahme und ein erster Funktionstest. Hauptergebnisse: Die Anlage wurde im Rahmen der Projektarbeit ausgelegt, gebaut, in Betrieb genommen und getestet. Sie steht als Vorzeigeobjekt für den Unterricht zur Verfügung. Der Windsichter, die Rohrleitungen, der Behälter für das Aufgabegut, die Kübel und der Zyklon wurden aus durchsichtigem Kunststoff hergestellt. Dies erlaubt einen Einblick in die einzelnen Trennprozesse der Anlage sowie die Transportprozesse in den Rohrleitungen. Der Ventilator, der Frequenzumrichter und das Manometer sind in der Anlage fest installiert. Über den Frequenzumrichter lassen sich die Drehzahl des Ventilators und so der Luft-Volumenstrom in der Anlage steuern. Für das Aufgabegut im Unterricht wurde Kunststoffgranulat aus Polypropylen gewählt. Ein kleiner Teil des Aufgabeguts wurde geschreddert, um eine Partikelgrössenverteilung im Aufgabegut zu erreichen. Das Aufgabegut ist weich genug, um die Apparate und Rohre nicht zu verkratzen. Der Zyklon kann Partikel mit einem Durchmesser von 5 bis 25 μm abscheiden. Dies in Abhängigkeit der Beladung und des Volumenstroms. Um kleinere Partikel aus dem Luftstrom abzuscheiden, ist ein HEPA-Filter am Luftaustritt des Zyklons installiert worden. Die Luftgeschwindigkeit im Windsichter kann über den Luft-Volumenstrom berechnet werden. Den Luft-Volumenstrom kann man mithilfe der Irisblende bestimmen. Die Anlage ist in einem Gestell aus Aluminium-Profilen aufgebaut und das Gestell steht auf Rollen. Die Anlage ist so konzipiert, dass sie einfach transportiert werden kann und sie passt durch Türen und in einen Warenlift. Ausblick: Als Einsatzzweck für die Anlage sind Laborversuche für die Studierenden denkbar. Die Studierenden könnten Auslegungsrechnungen zu der gegebenen Anlage durchführen, diese mit einem Versuch auf die Probe stellen und die Resultate diskutieren. Es sind auch weitere Projekte möglich, um die Anlage zu verbessern oder zu erweitern. Die Dosiervorrichtung sollte überarbeitet werden. Zudem könnten weitere Messpunkte installiert wer-den. Es gibt Pläne, die Anlage für das Klassieren von kleinen Holzstaubchargen zu benutzen. Basierend darauf, ob sich der Windsichter für diese Aufgabe gut eignet, kann eine grössere Anlage gebaut werden, welche den gewünschten Durchsatz ermöglicht.11 - Studentische ArbeitPublikation Hydrothermal oxidation of fecal sludge. Experimental investigations and kinetic modeling(American Chemical Society, 17.10.2016) Hübner, Tobias; Roth, Markus; Vogel, FrédéricHydrothermal oxidation (HTO) provides an efficient technique to completely destroy wet organic wastes. In this study, HTO was applied to treat fecal sludge at well-defined experimental conditions. Four different kinetic models were adjusted to the obtained data. Among others, a distributed activation energy model (DAEM) was applied. A total of 33 experiments were carried out in an unstirred batch reactor with pressurized air as the oxidant at temperatures of <470 °C, oxygen-to-fuel equivalence ratios between 0 and 1.9, feed concentrations between 3.9 and 9.8 molTOC L−1 (TOC = total organic carbon), and reaction times between 86 and 1572 s. Decomposition of the fecal sludge was monitored by means of the conversion of TOC to CO2 and CO. In the presence of oxygen, ignition of the reaction was observed around 300 °C, followed by further rapid decomposition of the organic material. The TOC was completely decomposed to CO2 within 25 min at 470 °C and an oxygen-to-fuel equivalence ratio of 1.2. CO was formed as an intermediate product, and no other combustible products were found in the gas. At certain reaction conditions, the formation of unwanted coke and tarlike products occurred. The reaction temperature and oxygen-to-fuel equivalence ratio showed a significant influence on TOC conversion, while the initial TOC concentration did not. Conversion of TOC to CO2 could be well described with a first-order rate law and an activation energy of 39 kJ mol−1.01A - Beitrag in wissenschaftlicher ZeitschriftPublikation Aerosol emission in a road tunnel(Elsevier, 02/1997) Weingartner, Ernest; Keller, Christian; Stahel, Werner; Burtscher, Heinz; Baltensperger, UrsContinuous measurements of aerosol emissions were performed within the scope of emission measurements in the Gubrist tunnel, a 3250 m long freeway tunnel near Zürich, Switzerland, from 20 September to 26 September 1993. The particles in the respirable size range (d < 3 μm) were found to be mainly tail pipe emissions with very small amount of tire wear and road dust. The calculated PM3 emission factor for diesel engines was about 310 mg/km, where the main part (63%) of the diesel vehicles were heavy-duty vehicles. Thirty-one percent of the PM3 emissions from diesel vehicles were black carbon and 0.86% particle bound PAR Due to the high fraction emitted by diesel engines the contribution of gasoline engines could not be evaluated by the statistical model. During their residence time in the tunnel the particles undergo significant changes, resulting in a more compact structure. It is concluded that this is mainly due to adsorption of volatile material from the gas phase to the particle surface.01A - Beitrag in wissenschaftlicher Zeitschrift